3    Principles for organic breeding

In section 2.3.3 we showed how various initiatives in organic plant breeding are aimed at the needs of the organic farmer and at distinguishing organic from conventional breeding in both product characteristics and breeding methods. These initiatives take place in two dimensions:

-    plant-environment interaction (ecological dimension)

-    the interaction between breeder/seed supplier and farmer (socio-economic dimension)

In this chapter, we translate the organic farming principles discussed in chapter 2 into ecological and socio-economic principles for a breeding system for organic agriculture. These principles are expressed as propositions that may be further defined or adjusted in the process of assessing which characteristics and objectives are desirable in an organic breeding system.

         3.1    Plant-environment interaction

Like other living organisms, plants are products of evolutionary processes. Evolution is the adaptation of organisms to changes in their environment. The success of organic farmers is related directly to their ability to home in on this adaptive ability. After all, conditions on a working farm cannot be compared to the trial plot set-up where plant breeders evaluate the performance of a new variety or strain. On conventional farms, artificial fertilisers and pesticides are used to copy the "ideal" conditions on trial plots. If a conventional farmer wants to optimise the 'promised' plant characteristics, he must also reduce biotic and abiotic variation on his farm. Generally speaking, however, the more an agro-ecological system differs from the natural ecosystem of the region, the more maintenance will the system require. On the organic farm, genetic variation should be available to allow crop plants to adapt to the conditions of the individual farm or field.

In an organic farmer's eyes, diversity is a valuable resource rather than a hindrance. For example, there may be more beneficial organisms to control those that are harmful. Organic farm management encourages a closed farm system and optimal self-regulating ability, both of which respect natural processes. Organic farmers value the plant-environment interaction - and the conditions for this interaction - at least as much as the economic performance of a variety or strain.

The objectives of a closed system, self-regulation and diversity at farm level, can be translated to the plant level as:
-    natural reproductive ability
-    independent adaptive ability
-    species authenticity and characteristics
These aspects will be discussed in the following sections.

         3.1.1    Natural reproductive ability

In organic agriculture, it is considered that the ability of plants to reproduce themselves is indicative of vigour, and that vigour is an expression of a plant's health and nutritional value. Thus, organic farmers prefer to use strains which have retained their reproductive ability. Maintaining this characteristic in cultivars is not as easy as it sounds. Many cultivars do not flower and/or disseminate without human intervention. Hybrids, for example, lose their specific combination of characteristics in a next generation.

In the examples above, the plants have retained their reproductive potential. With some forms of hybridisation, however, the reproductive ability is lost. In cross-fertilisation, the parent lines of hybrids are artificially inbred. In leeks, for example, the parent lines are no longer able to reproduce themselves and are maintained through tissue culture.

Cytoplasmic male-sterile maternal lines are often used in the production of hybrid seed. These maternal lines are unable to reproduce because they do not produce functioning pollen. This method is the most extreme example of lost reproductive ability and one which also affects the reproductive ability of the cross, in effect damaging the plant's vitality. Moreover, cms hybrids, or cybrids, cannot be used for breeding.

From an organic point of view, the production of such varieties is unethical. The plants are used without consideration for the centuries of cultivation that have gone before.

The latest technique is single-use seed (Agrarisch Dagblad, 1998). Genes are chemically treated to prevent a next generation of seed from germinating. This technique was developed to protect the interests of investors in the development of genetically modified varieties.

                        Proposition:    An organic plant breeding method may not affect a plant's reproductive potential nor impede sustainable use of cultivars.

The use of vegetative, or asexual, propagation methods is on the increase. There are crucial differences between asexual propagation and sexual, or generative, propagation. In asexual propagation, all existing characteristics are passed on (more of the same), but there is a risk that diseases are transferred too. Propagation through seed, on the other hand, limits disease transfer so that a new generation can be said to be stronger. A disadvantage of sexual propagation in cross-pollinators is that new generations have different characteristics from the parents, thus requiring a new selection process.

From an organic point of view, there are no major objections to the use of vegetative propagation methods, since this ability actually comes naturally to a number of plants. In fact, in some cases, one is forced to resort to vegetative propagation. However, if vegetative propagation is used solely to secure certain characteristics, we believe that periodic 'refresher' generative phases should be included in the breeding programme to ensure sufficient resistance and vigour.

         3.1.2    Independent adaptation to the environment

A plant is more than the expression of its genes. Its characteristics are determined to a large extent by its environment. In the literature, this is described as the genotype x environment interaction. A plant's ability to adapt to its environment is closely linked to this genotype x environment interaction. In conventional circles, 'adaptation' has come to mean the stability of the phenotype in various conditions. In organic agriculture, the term is used to indicate the suitability of varieties for specific production conditions. Organic farming has the following vision with respect to a plant's independent ability to adapt to natural (organic) farming conditions.

    Propositions:

                            Organic breeding is based on the concept that a plant is an interconnected whole and as such contributes to the multifunctionality of the agro-ecological system.

                         A phenotype approach (genotype - environment interaction) has greater value for an organic breeding system than a strict genotype approach, because of organic farming's greater dependence on natural conditions.

                         Organic breeding must aim at increasing the genetic diversity within a variety and be against inbreeding (homozygosity/uniformity) beyond what is strictly necessary for farming practice.

                         Organic breeding must aim at creating and maintaining greater genetic variation between the varieties.

                         Organic breeding must aim at reinforcing the ability of a crop to adapt to regional 5 , natural circumstances. For example, adaptation to seasonal changes in soil nitrogen levels, climate and soil type (Lammerts van Bueren, 1994; Kunz et al., 1991a).

                         Organic breeding must aim at reinforcing the self-regulating ability of a crop, for example by boosting the variety's biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and incorporating polygenetic resistance to disease and pests (Daamen, 1990).

                         The optimal adaptation of a variety to circumstances on an organic farm, such as soil condition, climate and disease pressure (resilience and restorative ability) should be achieved through breeding and selection in organic circumstances at the crop level.

         3.1.3    Crop characteristics

             Species authenticity
The big question in discussions on the use of biotechnology is: may we cross the line of species authenticity? The concept of 'species' is not clearly defined in biology. Generally, biologists refer to a species when the following two conditions apply:

-    a species consists of individuals with a high degree of similarity;

-    the individuals of a species can produce fertile offspring through sexual reproduction.

There is no black-and-white definition for a species and some plant species are so flexible that they defy any attempt at definition. Take, for example, the cultivation of wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea). Centuries of cultivation has resulted in many different forms, all of which were probably characteristics of the wild plant. Thus many different cultivated varieties of cabbage are descended from wild cabbage - turnip, kohlrabi, white cabbage, sprouts, cauliflower and broccoli - each of which accentuates a particular characteristic: the hypocotyl, the root, the leaf, the axillary bud. Breeding thus contributes to diversity in form (Lammerts van Bueren, 1993).

Another reason why species is not a black-and-white concept is the occurrence of spontaneous crosses between species which result in fertile offspring. In favourable circumstances, new species develop. Wheat, for example, is believed to be a cross between three species (figure 3); oilseed rape (Brassica napus) is the result of a cross between rapeseed (B. rapa) and cabbage (B. oleracea). Triticale, too, is a cross between two species, wheat and rye. These crops are much-used in modern agriculture and have all the characteristics of a mature species.

Download Figure 3. The genome composition of wheat (Kunz 1994) (14k)

Sometimes, a cultivar and its wild equivalent are crossed. For example, cultivated tomatoes are crossed with wild tomatoes and backcrossed with cultivars to incorporate resistance genes from the wild tomato into the cultivar (introgression). About 75% of all cultivars are the result of hybridisation at family, genus or species level (Simmonds, 1976).

In the plant world, species authenticity can be breached spontaneously. However, that does not justify unlimited breaching by breeders. In the wild, these occurrences are few and far between. They are certainly an important factor in retaining or increasing diversity and for this reason we should not be too dogmatic about drawing the line at species authenticity. In accordance with the principles of organic agriculture, the extent to which species authenticity 'may' be breached should depend on how naturally fertilisation and embryo growth can still occur (on the plant or in the petridish) and on the fertility of progeny.

                        Proposition:    Organic plant breeding respects the natural species authenticity. Any attempt to breach species authenticity should be stopped if seed formation on the plant fails.

            Species characteristics
A species differs from another species by specific characteristics, such as colour, form, keeping quality and taste. This applies to cultivars as well. Although taste is a subjective matter, a crop can be said to have 'character' when it comes to taste. These characteristics are partly hereditary within a species and partly the result of environmental influences. Breeding also changes characteristics. Conventional breeding has focused on yield rather than on disease resistance, taste and keeping quality. Daamen (1990) showed how, in the last decades, the susceptibility to disease of winter wheat has risen with yield. Too narrow a focus on quantity can easily backlash by affecting quality.

            Specific regional characteristics
The adaptation of a crop to its surroundings also implies that the crop reflects the specificity of the region. Thus certain characteristics in crops may vary from region to region.

                        Proposition:    Organic breeding must aim to influence the crop-specific equilibrium to enable the optimal development of crop and regional characteristics, including taste.

            Nutritional value
Cultivars do not only have intrinsic value, they are grown as food for people. It is not easy to define the nutritional value of a plant. However, if we can say that 'healthy crops make for healthy eating', we must produce crops that are free of undesirable substances (natural toxins, pesticide and herbicide residues) and that contain ample nutritional elements, such as vitamins and minerals.

    Proposition:    Organic breeding takes into account a product's nutritional value.

        3.2    The interaction between breeder and farmer

         3.2.1     Participatory plant breeding

Modern breeding, particularly in the developed world, is characterised by a strict division between breeders as the 'creators' of new varieties and farmers as 'users'. At the same time, conventional plant breeding has too little consideration for the diversity in farm conditions, preferring to focus on standard varieties and strains. These limitations are economic, institutional, technical and conceptual in nature (Hardon et al., 1993). Economic, because the costs of breeding programmes and the commercial objectives of propagators result in varieties that cover the largest possible geographical range. Institutional, because of the limited possibilities for breeding crops for specific environments. Technical limitations pertain to the limited understanding of genotype-environment interactions. And finally, conceptual problems result from product-oriented technology development that ignores the context in which new products and technologies are to be applied.

These are the limitations of a linear model for the development and transfer of genetic material which starts with the parent lines in breeding programmes and ends in varieties to be used by farmers. The limitations of this model have important ecological consequences. Modern genetic plant matter is developed for highly conditioned production circumstances. Typically, the varieties are tested in circumstances designed to optimise yields. As a result, production conditions in real farm practice have to be standardised, for example by applying chemicals to the land and crops.

In the linear model of seed technology development and transfer, deficiencies in the plant's ability to adapt to 'deviating' production conditions do not become visible until the variety is introduced into farming practice. Current propagating material thus often proves inadequate in organic farming conditions. A variety may be perfect, at least in the short term, for the standardised, maximum yield growing circumstances on conventional farms, but fall short of the mark in organic agriculture.

Developments in organic farming demand other solutions than those offered by the linear breeding model. One commonly heard solution is to develop a basic variety with average characteristics and a large geographical range. Using biotechnological techniques, this basic variety could be adapted for regional production; conditions and characteristics could be accentuated or toned down on demand. Certainly, the result is inter-local diversity, but it is based on 'basic technological developments'. The incorporated adaptations would be relatively simple and monogenetic in nature. A monogenetic approach does not result in fundamentally different propagating material and is not in accordance with the phenotype approach in organic farming.

Rather than genetically improving specific characteristics, organic plant breeding should be a continuous process in which propagating material is adapted to future production conditions. Such a process is the result of a complex interaction between the propagating material and the production environment, a method based on a cyclic rather than a linear model, as demonstrated by Kunz et al. (1991a).

Kunz developed an organic breeding programme which we discuss briefly here. His programme is based on selecting varieties in farm circumstances. Varieties are permanently being adapted to local production conditions. The process commences with the selection of parents on the basis of their suitability for the conditions in which the future variety is to be grown, ie. not on the basis of an ideal standard production regime. After the new variety has been formed, selection for farm circumstances/region continues 6 to enable an optimal adaptation of the variety to future growing circumstances. Loss of genetic variation is kept to the necessary minimum for successful growth on the farm concerned.

Kunz' method reflects the farm-based research which is so praised in the organic sector. Some projects are participatory, giving farmers a say in the breeding process (Kunz et al., 1991a). In the Netherlands, participatory selection is also a feature of conventional breeding programmes in the seed potato and flower bulb sectors, where a lot of selection material is developed by amateur breeders affiliated to large trading firms. However, the input of individual selectors in conventional breeding is expected to decline with the rise of biotechnology (National Reference Centre for Agriculture, 1997).

In the organic approach, the relationship between breeders and farmers changes. In this specific approach, breeders and farmers interact in a cyclic process as they continually strive to develop new propagating material. This is a drastic change from the linear approach, but it is not an entirely new one. In Third World countries, breeding processes based on breeder-farmer interactions are being discussed and developed. This is referred to as participatory plant breeding.

The goal of participatory plant breeding is to develop local varieties adapted specifically to local production conditions. In such a breeding programme farmers receive plant material (not necessarily an officially listed variety) with sufficient genetic diversity to allow selection in, and adaptation to, local conditions. The linear model becomes a cyclic model in which farmers and breeders work together to develop new varieties. New breeding material is developed through a collaboration of breeders and researchers. On-farm activities carried out by farmers do not conflict with institutional plant breeding. In fact, such activities are valued (or recognised) as part of the breeding process.

This approach has proven valuable for the development of plant material in marginal Third World regions (Van der Heide et al., 1996). The approach can also be applied in sustainable production systems, especially in organic agriculture, in the developed nations. After all, the goal of participatory plant breeding is to develop varieties in local circumstances so that plants are adapted specifically to the prevailing growing conditions. Similar experiments are already being conducted in organic plant breeding (Kunz et al., 1991a).

Organic farming does not oppose specialisation, provided that interactions then occur at higher levels, for example by linking farms in collaborative projects (see section 2.1). However, if a farmer is not specialised in breeding and propagation and prefers to leave part of the plant-seed interaction to someone else, he will have to ensure that he develops a close business relationship with the plant breeder/propagator. In this manner, knowledge and experience are mutually exchanged and put to use in the most optimal manner. However, in the absence of a direct farmer/breeder relationship, maintenance of diversity within crop varieties should help to ensure 'unconscious' selection for the farm or local environment.

                        Proposition:    In view of experiences with participatory plant breeding in the Third World, priority should be given to research exploring the possibilities for participatory plant breeding in organic agriculture in the developed nations.

         2.2.1    Legislation

The Seeds and Planting Materials Act protects the intellectual rights of ownership, or breeders' rights, in the agricultural sector (see appendix 2). According to the Act, a variety is 'a group of plants falling under a cultivar crop which form an indivisible and distinctive unit and whose characteristic qualities are passed on to new generations by means of the normal reproductive method for that plant type.' Wiskerke (1997) noted that the concept of variety is typically used in the context of breeders' rights and is not a concept in any botanical classification. According to Parlevliet et al. (1993), a variety is the result of genetic selection within a species by humans. For example, the variety Bintje falls under the species potato. Since a variety is a selection resulting from human labour, the definition of a variety is by default based on an understanding between the various parties involved in its creation.

In this section, the definition of 'variety' is discussed within the context of organic agriculture.

Usually, a variety only qualifies for breeders' rights if it is new, distinguishable, homogeneous (uniform) and stable. These are the requisite criteria for varieties while at the same time they define the concept. These criteria potentially form a problem for organic agriculture and breeding.

Earlier, in section 3.1.2, we stated that organic farming needs varieties which can adapt to changing regional soil and weather conditions, which have a high resistance to disease and pests and high resilience (environmental buffer). It is sufficient, in this case, to breed plants no further for these characteristics than is necessary for crop growth and mechanical harvesting. As a result, the varieties may not have that degree of uniformity currently demanded for registration as a variety. Seed may only be marketed if it is included in the varieties list. Thus the uniformity criterion, when applied in the strict sense, may impede the development and marketing of varieties that are specifically designed for organic farming. In Germany, steps have already been taken to solve this problem (see appendix 3). The Netherlands, too, is lobbying in Brussels for an open discussion on maintaining genetic diversity in Europe through national varieties, old varieties, organic varieties and private use.

                        Proposition:    Legislation must be amended so that organic varieties, which are not always uniform for all characteristics, may be marketed.

Considerable funds are needed to obtain breeders' rights, to register with the Netherlands Varieties Office and to conduct research for a recommended varieties listing. A professional breeder will only make these investments if he expects reasonable returns. This state of affairs is only conducive to the breeding of varieties with a large geographical range. Organic agriculture, however, demands varieties that are adapted to very specific regional conditions. The costs of registering a variety and maintaining this registration would appear to be one of the factors impeding the marketing of varieties developed specifically for organic farming, since these costs cannot be financed from the marketing of varieties alone. This calls for a new financing structure.

Proposition:    A new financing structure will have to be developed for an organic breeding system.

The categories which make up the National Varieties List (see appendix 2), implicitly attach a value to the different varieties, thus governing the behaviour of farmers, seed suppliers and breeders. Farmers are encouraged to use 'A'-varieties since these are labelled as the 'best choice currently available' or 'best suited for the purposes of a modern entrepreneur'. Seed suppliers are encouraged to recommend 'A'-varieties specifically to farmers. And breeders are pressed to ensure their new variety is placed on the 'A'-list, since this is proof of the fact that they have produced a 'top' variety (Wiskerke, 1997). In practice, breeders are focused on producing new varieties for the 'A'-list only. These varieties must meet strict productivity criteria; other plant characteristics are not considered very important.

                        Proposition:    Organic agriculture demands a revision of the categories in the Varieties List, so that varieties with special characteristics are also recommended.

As the yields of varieties increase, growing conditions have to be increasingly standardised. The result is loss of genetic variation. Dutch arable farming is dominated by only a few varieties, most of which result from the same pool of parents. It is now quite normal for the total crop acreage to be dominated by only three varieties. Furthermore, as breeding companies become more international seeking wider markets, there is a tendency for national gene pools to be mixed and then unified.

Genetic erosion is amplified by the application of gene technology and the patenting of these technologies. Multiple licences are usually required before certain patented techniques may be applied. These expenses are often so considerable that only large multinationals can easily afford to apply them. If a breeder chooses to use a genetically modified variety in his breeding programme and he creates a new line with that specific gene, he will have to respect the patent on that gene. Patent holders are free to decide which breeders may use a gene. Thus fewer people are involved in the breeding of a certain crop and crossing material may no longer be freely exchanged. This results in the loss of genetic variation in breeding programmes, which is further exarcerbated by mergers which result in large conglomerates of seed companies (Heselmans, 1998).

These socio-economic developments conflict with the principles of organic agriculture, since it is likely to result in an unsustainable use of the plant and a loss of genetic variation (erosion) in the cultivar.

Propositions:    

There must be a free exchange of genetic breeding material between organic breeders.

The patenting of organisms or parts thereof, or their genes (DNA sequences), conflicts with the principles of organic agriculture.

Organic farmers must retain the right to propagate seed at a regional or farm level, since this results in the fine-tuning of a variety to local production circumstances. This is called farmers' privilege, which is laid down in breeders' rights (see appendix 2). Propagating ones own seed is made impossible by the highly undesirable practice of patenting varieties or genes.

Proposition:    Organic agriculture is in favour of upholding farmers' privilege.

Organic agriculture is aimed at improving self-regulating ability, in both the agro-ecological and the socio-economic dimension. The natural variation in regional farming conditions demands diversity in breeding activities, which can be achieved by cutting down on breeding regulations. Modern, capital intensive breeding is caught in a web of regulations protecting intellectual ownership (breeders' rights, patents, trademarks) as well as entry requirements, licences, and environmental and health regulations.

                        Proposition:    Organic farmers' interests should be considered in the design of a legal structure (entry requirements and requisites for use) for organic breeding activities.

         2.3    Summary and conclusions

In this chapter, we have answered the first of the two questions posed in the introductory chapter, namely: what type of plant breeding system would match developments in organic agriculture? The principles of such a breeding system can be summarised as follows:

Ecological principles:
*    The plant's natural reproductive ability should be retained, thus ensuring the sustainable use of the cultivar.
-    artificially blocking a cultivar's reproductive ability is not allowed.

*    Varieties must be able to adapt easily and independently to organic farming conditions.
-    the plant is viewed as an interconnected whole which enhances the multifunctional character of a farm;
-    phenotype and genotype are considered equally;
-    greater genetic diversity within and between varieties enhances the plant's ability to adapt to local farming conditions;
-    broad resistance to disease and pests enhances the self-regulating ability of the organic farming system;
-    new varieties should preferably be selected for (regional) organic farming conditions.

*    Crop characteristics must be respected.
-    species authenticity may not be violated (seed must be able to form on the plant);
-    qualities such as taste, colour, form, nutritional value and keeping quality must be retained and improved;
-    efforts should be made to ensure the optimal development of general and regional crop characteristics;
-    specific attention should be given to a crop's nutritional value.

Socio-economic principles:
-    farmers and breeders should work together closely to ensure a mutual exchange of know-how and experience;
-    regulations should be amended to enable the marketing of organic varieties;
-    there should be a free exchange of genetic seed stock between organic breeders;
-    organic farming organisations oppose the patenting of genes;
-    farmers' privilege should be upheld;
-    legal regulations and requirements (entry requirements and requisites for use) should consider organic farmers' interests;
-    a new financing structure should be developed for an organic breeding system.

These principles clearly show that organic agriculture is based on an entirely different paradigm from conventional farming. Other questions must be researched and an organic breeding system must have a different structure and goal from conventional breeding programmes. These differences pertain to the characteristics of the varieties and to the breeding techniques. These breeding techniques are discussed in the next chapter and assessed for their suitability for organic breeding based on the above principles.

Next section of "Sustainable Organic Plant Breeding."

Back to List of Contents

To Ifgene home page