Subproject 1 -- Discussion paper: defining a vision and assessing breeding methods
E.T. Lammerts van Bueren, M. Hulscher, J. Jongerden, M. Haring, J. Hoogendoorn, J.D. van Mansvelt, G.T.P. Ruivenkamp
© Louis Bolk Institute, 1998
This Discussion Paper can be ordered from the Louis Bolk Institute, by mentioning the publication number G18. The price is Dfl 42,= for sending abroad, Dfl 37,50 for sending within the Netherlands (postage included). A Dutch or German version is also available. Address: Louis Bolk Institute, Hoofdstraat 24, NL-3972 LA Driebergen, The Netherlands. Tel: ** 31 343 523869. Fax: ** 31 343 515611, Email: E.Lammerts@louisbolk.nl
Foreword
This discussion paper describes the first part of a larger project to define a vision, choices and phased plan for a sustainable plant breeding system for organic farming.
The paper is written for organisations connected with organic agriculture (farmers, traders, retailers and consumers), policy makers, politicians and breeders. We also hope that the paper will serve as a basis for discussions in society about the scope for a gmo-free production chain.
The paper was written in the period September 1997 to May 1998 under the responsibility of the Louis Bolk Institute. It is the result of a collaboration between scientists from various disciplines connected with conventional and organic farming practices. The members of the project group are:
E.T. Lammerts van Bueren (agricultural scientist, Louis Bolk Institute), M. Hulscher (plant breeding scientist, Louis Bolk Institute), dr. M. Haring (molecular biologist, Amsterdam University), dr. J. Hoogendoorn (plant breeding scientist, Centre for Plant Breeding and Reproduction Research CPRO-DLO), J.D. van Mansvelt (biologist, Organic Agriculture Group, Wageningen Agricultural University), J. Jongerden and G. Ruivenkamp (sociologists in technology, Technology and Agricultural Development Group, Wageningen Agricultural University).
The project group is grateful for constructive criticism by the consultative group, who are: R. Boeringa and C. Tielemans (Working Group on Organic Vegetable Growing), prof. dr. J. van Damme (Netherlands Institute for Ecological Research), prof. dr. E. Goewie (Wageningen Agricultural University), dr. J. Lambalk (ENZA Seed), F. Schroën (National Reference Centre for Agriculture) and dr. J. Velema (Vitalis Organic Seed).
The project was funded by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (Department of Science and Knowledge Dissemination).
Edith Lammerts van Bueren
Project Manager
(The numbers on the right refer to page numbers in the printed edition mentioned above.)
Foreword 3
Summary 7
1 Introduction 11
1.1 Justification 11
1.2 Problem 11
1.3 Project objectives 12
1.4 Subproject 1 method 12
2 The development of organic agriculture 13
2.1 What is organic agriculture? 13
2.2 The growth of the organic
sector 14
2.3 The development of basic seed stock for the organic
sector 15
2.3.1 Characteristics of varieties for organic
growing 15
2.3.2 Organic propagation 17
2.3.3 Organic plant breeding 18
2.4 Summary and conclusion 22
3 Principles for organic breeding 23
3.1 Plant-environment interaction 23
3.1.1 Natural reproductive ability 23
3.1.2 Independent adaptation to the
environment 24
3.1.3 Crop characteristics 25
3.2 The interaction between breeder and
farmer 27
3.2.1 Participatory plant breeding 27
3.2.2 Legislation 29
3.3 Summary and conclusions 31
4 Breeding methods 33
4.1 A critique of developments in agriculture and plant
breeding 33
4.1.1 Developments in agriculture 33
4.1.2 Developments in plant breeding 34
4.1.3 A critique of current plant breeding
objectives 35
4.2 The suitability of current breeding methods for organic
agriculture 37
4.2.1 Selection methods at the crop level 37
4.2.2 Crossing methods at the whole plant
level 38
4.2.3 Hybrid varieties 38
4.2.4 Breeding at the cell level 40
4.2.5 Breeding at DNA level 41
4.2.5.1 Genetic modification techniques 42
4.2.5.2 Diagnostic techniques 44
4.3 Summary and conclusions 44
5 Conclusions 47
Notes (were footnotes in the original printed version)
References 48
Further references 51
Glossary 52
Appendix 1 Names and addresses
of organic plant breeders B1-1
Appendix 2 Plant breeding
legislation B2-1
Appendix 3 Alternative seed can
also be marketed B3-1
Appendix 4 Plant breeding
techniques B4-1
Appendix 5 An example of the
application of breeding methods on the basis of pedigree
selection B5-1
Summary
In the Netherlands, organic agriculture1 is much talked about in all spheres of society - consumers, farmers, the government and the agricultural sector. Organic farming is being recognised as a growing economic activity, and one that meets many of society's current demands on agriculture. However, as this method of farming expands, plant breeding is becoming a major bottleneck.
Organic agriculture organisations have clearly said "no" to the use of genetically modified organisms (gmo- free). This is crucial for all of society, since the demand for gmo-free products extends well beyond the traditional range of the organic market.
Since organic plant breeding companies are scarce, organic farmers still depend strongly on conventional breeding companies for plant varieties. These seed companies are applying genetic modification techniques at such a rate that gmo-free varieties will no longer be available in three to five years' time. This is a direct threat to the gmo-free, organic production chain.
The fact that the same varieties are being used on organic farms as on conventional farms does not mean that these are the best varieties for organic farming systems. This is yet another reason why organic farmers need propagating materials designed specifically for their farming system.
According to EU Regulation 2092/91 on organic production, after 31 December 2000, all propagating materials used in organic farming must be of organic origin. This deadline applies particularly to propagation. Currently, efforts are being made to have the ban on genetically modified organisms, set by (international) organic growers' associations, taken up in EU legislation. As yet, directives for organic plant breeding have not been further specified.
Although, generally speaking, conventional plant breeding companies in the Netherlands do not meet organic farming needs, they are interested in and concerned about the organic sector's viewpoint. In recent years, a number of conventional seed companies have conducted propagation experiments on organic farms, and not without success. However, there is some hesitation in taking the next step, ie. launching specific breeding programmes for the organic sector. In the Netherlands, only one company breeds and propagates seed exclusively for organic vegetable farming. In other countries, too, organic plant breeding occurs on only a very small scale. In the Netherlands this year, the knowledge and coòrdination centre Zaadgoed Foundation was set up on the initiative of the organic agriculture sector to stimulate the development of an organic breeding programme.
In order to present a gmo-free organic plant breeding system as an alternative to breeding with gene technology, the organic sector must do more than explain why it is against the use of gmos. It will have to explain what it does want.
In this discussion paper, we present the organic sector's ideas and preconditions for a professional plant breeding system. These preconditions are formulated as propositions and are meant as grounds for discussion and evaluation by the various organisations active in the organic agriculture sector. These discussions are planned for the period September 1998 to February 1999. The consequences of the various preconditions with respect to (European) legislation and the sector's competitiveness will be identified and presented for the discussions. A final report will be published in April 1999 and will include a phased plan to develop an organic breeding system.
With this discussion paper, the Netherlands has taken the lead in the EU. It is crucial that our ideas and plans are synchronised with those of organic organisations in other member states. Various countries have indicated that they would like to use (a translation of) this paper to get their own discussions underway. This paper is unique for two reasons; first, because of its thorough exploration of a major issue in organic agriculture. And second, rarely have guiding principles, preconditions or restrictions on plant use been drawn up which place our use of plants in a cultural perspective. Contrary to the fields of animal ethics or medical ethics, little literature was available.
Breeding activities serve to enhance agricultural production. Conventional breeding programmes reflect the course of the conventional farming system. In recent decades, this system has focused on increasing the production potential through increasing scale and specialisation. Agriculture has become an industry.
Due to specialisation, breeding has become an independent economic branch with its own economic goals, which in turn determine its course. Breeding time and costs must be kept to a minimum. The range of diversity has declined as farmers have adopted increasingly standardised growing systems. Another result of the 'breeding economy' is the continued focus on monogenetic, absolute resistance, while fundamental scientific researchers are increasingly interested in polygenetic resistance which is generally more durable than monogenetic resistance. Profit maximisation remains the greatest goal in the breeding business, although it seems that the scope is now broadening somewhat.
Organic agriculture has deliberately evolved in another direction. Organic farmers want a production level that is economically sound and viable from a sustainable farm management view. The demand on natural resources in and around the farm should not exceed capacity. Farm management is aimed at supporting the self-regulating ability of the soil, the plants and the animals on the farm. The use of synthetic chemical fertilisers and pesticides is not allowed.
Organic farmers do not want to raise production with additional applications of nitrogen and are more sensitive to natural variability in farm conditions. That is why organic farmers need varieties that adapt well to specific soil and fertiliser situations on each farm and that grow well at low fertility levels. More than conventional farmers, organic farmers greatly value varieties that contribute substantially to weed reduction, that have a high resistance to disease and pests and a high product quality, for example, in taste.
Organic breeding is not the same as propagating varieties that have been produced by the conventional system and selling these on the organic market. Organic farmers also have different requirements for variety characteristics (products) and the manner in which the product came about (process). Thus guiding principles for a breeding system for organic farming must encompass both ecological and socio-economic aspects.
Supporting the self-regulating capacity of the farm means increasing the genetic variation in and among the varieties of each crop and striving for durable levels of polygenetic resistance to diseases and pests rather than absolute, monogenetic resistance. Central to the ecological standpoint is the view that plants or crops should be studied in their interaction with the environment, in other words, as a whole. Thus in situ selection is more important than selection based on individual, genetic traits alone. It is therefore important that breeding activities are carried out in organic circumstances, at the regional level.
According to the ecological principles of organic agriculture, a crop must be able to complete its life cycle in natural circumstances. This ensures that the crop maintains its development potential in different growing conditions and guarantees sustainable use. Some modern hybrid varieties, such as leeks, have lost their reproductive ability. A parent line must be maintained so that propagation can be achieved by tissue culture. The artificial nature of hybrids has been under discussion in organic circles for some time. Another issue is cytoplasmic male sterility (cms). This technique makes the propagation of hybrids easier by ensuring that female lines and progeny are male sterile. Sterility may be restored with a restorer line, which is not always available. To organic organisations, these practices are ethically unsound as they result in an unsustainable use of plants, which are the result of centuries of cultivation. We shall propose allowing the use of hybrid varieties in organic farming only if the vigour of the parent line has not declined to the extent that natural propagation is no longer possible and if F1 progeny can still be used for reproduction (ie. is not made male-sterile using cms without a restorer line).
Another question often posed in discussions is to what extent crosses between species should be allowed. Organic agricultural principles aim to respect natural species authenticity. Cross-breeding may be allowed to increase variation, for example to transfer the resistance characteristics of a wild plant to its cultivated equivalent, provided the cultivar maintains its ability to form seed. In addition to respecting natural species authenticity, plant breeding from an organic perspective should retain or improve the quality aspects of a plant, such as taste, keeping quality and nutritional value. Desired aspects are subject to regional differences (diversification).
From an organic agriculture perspective, a successful plant breeding programme must go hand in hand with farm and crop management. This demands close cooperation between farmers and breeders, optimising the use of mutual knowledge and experience. Plant breeding should be open to greater participation from outside and should take into account the socio-economic consequences of organic farming principles. Current legislation on the authorisation of new varieties is a bottleneck in the marketing of varieties with greater variation. These laws need to be amended. The organic sector agrees that breeders' rights should be maintained, but demands more consideration for organic farmers' needs. This will require several changes, such as a new funding structure for organic breeding.
In this paper, the possibilities and acceptability of all current breeding techniques for organic farming have been assessed on the basis of ecological and socio-economic principles. The techniques can be subdivided according to the level of plant organisation: the level of the crop and the plant, the level of the cell (tissue culture) and the molecular level (genetic modification).
In organic agriculture, it is important that plants are able to adapt easily to natural variation in environmental factors. That is why organic breeding should be based on selection and crossing techniques at crop and plant level. These techniques address the plant-environment interaction and are better suited to a participatory breeding approach. Organic breeding may include hybrid varieties under certain conditions (see above).
The organic sector has its reservations about breeding techniques at the cell level. Although the cell may be defined as the smallest living entity, there is no question of interaction between the organism and the natural organic environment at this level. Reducing plants to the level of the cell and culturing cells in the laboratory should be seen as an ecological detour, since adaptation to the organic farm situation must occur at a later phase in the breeding process. Many of these techniques are termed 'biotechnology'. Some have been used for years without objection from the organic sector. These techniques have added specific resistance qualities to many modern varieties, for example in tomatoes and sweet peppers. Alternatives will need to be developed should the organic sector decide against using such techniques.
The use of breeding techniques at the DNA level is rejected by the organic sector. Aside from the fact that little is known about the ecological and (public) health risks of genetic modification, these techniques clash with the ecological and socio-economic principles of organic farming. What is more, breeding at this level occurs independently of the plant-environment interaction and is more likely to upset than enhance natural processes and equilibrium. Genetic modification can be described as a solution based on short-term thinking, which is further reinforced by the close ties of gene technology to industrial agribusiness. The enormous capital investment required for these techniques invariably leads to the patenting of organisms or parts of organisms, which in turn leads to a concentration of power and industrial monopolies. The final result is genetic deterioration, which is the last thing organic agriculture wants.
It is often said that organic agriculture needs gene technology. But the products currently produced through biotechnology do not possess qualities valued by organic agriculture. They do not offer structural solutions for the specific problems of organic farming. Take, for example, the genetic transmission of the natural pesticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt gene) in cabbage, maize or cotton. When applied occasionally as an organic spray, the substance is an effective pest control measure. Now, due to genetic transmission, the substance is present throughout the growth cycle and it is only a matter of time before the control is overcome, rendering as worthless both the genetically modified varieties and the biological control agent.
However, in addition to genetic modification, selection techniques have been developed at the DNA level, which do not alter a plant's DNA. In this case, such DNA diagnostic methods might supplement other selection methods in an organic breeding programme.
Genetically modified organisms are not needed to further the development of organic agriculture. However, a specific organic breeding system is essential if the sector is to develop its potential and optimise its farming methods. The organic sector can no longer afford to depend on conventional breeding programmes, which are increasingly focused on gene technology. It is important that organic agriculture, in the interests of society, remains gmo-free. It is thus unavoidable that the organic sector sets up its own alternative breeding system, even if this has to be in cooperation with conventional seed companies.
In this paper, we make a plea for a plant breeding system that respects the principles and demands of organic farmers and consumers. These principles and demands raise new breeding objectives. An organic breeding system should operate at a high level of plant organisation and should take into account regional differences and the complexity of ecosystems. The challenge to organic agriculture is to develop and optimise crossing and selection techniques at plant and crop levels.
1 Introduction
1.1 Justification
Organic agriculture 2 is much talked about in all spheres of society - consumers, farmers, the government and agribusiness - in the Netherlands. This growing sector tries to meet the demands that society now makes of agriculture. One of the bottlenecks impeding the development of organic agriculture is plant breeding.
As yet, organic agriculture still depends strongly on conventional plant breeding programmes. The molecular, biochemical and physiological sciences dominate conventional plant breeding research, which is becoming focused on increasingly low levels of organistion (ie at the level of the cell and DNA)(nb breeding can mean removing genes/characters _ which is not 'incorporation'). Gene technology is developing so rapidly that within three to five years there will hardly be a variety which has not been produced with genetic modification. Plant breeding at present is determined to a large extent by the social organisation in the agro- industrial production chain, which concentrates on economies of scale, productivity and uniformity. The consumer, on the other hand, is increasingly concerned about health and the environmental aspects related to agricultural production; concern has also grown about genetically modified foods. Society wants agricultural production systems to incorporate the concepts of sustainability, biodiversity, regional development and multifunctionality. Organic agriculture is generally regarded as a shining example.
The organic farming organisations (the Dutch Forum for Organic Agriculture and Food, Platform Biologi sche Landbouw en Voeding, 1993; IFOAM, 1994) demand that products sold under the EKO label remain free of genetically modified organisms 3 (gmo-free).
In February 1997, the Second Chamber of Parliament accepted a motion that the government carry out a stimulation policy to ensure that gmo-free food production chains are established in time to meet the need. Organic agriculture was named as one example of such a production chain (Luttikholt, 1998).
Maintaining a gmo-free organic production chain is made difficult by the fact that organic agriculture still depends strongly on the conventional breeding system, in which genetic engineering is increasingly applied.
1.2 Problem
In order to successfully present a gmo-free organic plant breeding system as an alternative to breeding systems based on gene technology, the organic sector will have to do more than explain why it is against gmos. The sector will have to explain what type of breeding system it would prefer.
Ethical or cultural preconditions or restrictions on how we handle plants as a cultural inheritance must be drawn up with little aid from the literature. Kockelkoren (1993) wrote that peoples feelings in favour of or against biotechnology are related to their fundamental views on nature. Recently, a start was made in ecclesiastic circles to establish basic principles with which to judge biotechnology in agriculture (Koelega et al., 1998).
The matter of an appropriate breeding system for organic agriculture thus encompasses more than just describing how conventional technology can be used in organic farming. Organic and conventional farming may share some of the same problems and questions, possibly enabling cooperation to some extent. In other areas, cooperation may be out of the question, simply because the (social) organisation of farming and production differ too widely.
Compared to their conventional farming colleagues, organic farmers are more dependent on farm conditions. Making the right farm management decisions requires knowledge of complex agro-ecological systems, a knowledge which can be gained through research directed at higher levels of organisation (ie at the crop and variety levels). Although funds for research for organic agriculture are more readily available these days, hardly any breeding research according to organic principles has been carried out.
Before an organic plant breeding system can be developed, we must find an answer to the question:
a. What type of plant breeding system would match developments in organic agriculture?
Since supporters of genetic modification often declare that genetic modification is an absolute must for organic agriculture (Van Roekel, 1997), we must also answer the question:
b. Is genetic modification necessary for further development in organic agriculture?
1.3 Project objectives
The project has three objectives, each of which is tackled in a subproject:
Subproject 1: Draw up a vision and statements on the possibilities for a plant breeding system based on organic principles. This discussion paper is intended to contribute to this process.
Subproject 2: Guide the discussions between various organisations connected with the organic sector, based on the vision and statements in the discussion paper. The consequences of the formulated choices as regards (European) legislation and the sector's competitiveness on the market will be identified and included in the discussion. The discussion will also take place in international circles.
This subproject is planned for the period September 1998 to February 1999.
Subproject 3: Draw up a policy plan for the development of an organic plant breeding system. The plan will comprise steps to be taken in and outside the organic sector, internationally or otherwise.
This subproject will be described in the final report, due in April 1999.
1.4 Subproject 1 method
In this discussion paper we aim to answer the two questions stated in section 1.2. The general principles of organic farming will be translated to principles for organic breeding. In this paper, we will assess all the available methods of plant breeding (crossing and selection techniques, DNA recombinant and marker techniques and tissue culture) against the background of organic farming principles.
The organic sector's objections to genetic modification will be explained. We hope that the statements and views presented in this paper will forward the social and scientific discussions on the desirability and feasibility of a sustainable and gmo-free production chain.
The paper has been split into chapters as follows. In chapter 2, the principles of organic farming are set out. These principles are translated into principles for organic plant breeding in chapter 3. Chapter 4 contains an inventory of the available breeding methods and indicates which might be suited for organic farming. Finally, our conclusions are stated in chapter 5. Additional background information is provided in the appendices.