2 The development of organic agriculture

In this chapter we describe the development of organic agriculture from which we derive the preconditions for breeding for organic agriculture.

2.1 What is organic agriculture?

Increasing specialisation and economies of scale on farms have brought many benefits: high production levels, predictable yields, low prices for consumers and year-round availability of many products. However, there have also been detrimental effects: surface water pollution, loss of natural habitats and more pests and diseases. Organic agriculture, with its concept of self-regulation, has shown new possibilities for farming in the future. Organic agriculture has thus become an alternative to conventional farming.

Organic agriculture is an agricultural production method in which yields are at least adequate economically but are also sustainable, respecting the natural resources at or near the production site (for example, water, air, soil fertility, disease resistance). Organic farmers aim for optimal production under the conditions set by organic agriculture organisations. Environment-friendly principles and methods have replaced chemical fertilisers, pharmaceuticals, pesticides and growth regulators. Organic farmers stimulate production through fine-tuned management of the soil. Effective soil management is regarded as the linchpin on each organic farm.

The organic farmer's respect for nature is reflected in his/her actions, which are based on the self-regulating capacity of the various living organisms. A farmer should not only ask: 'How can I achieve my economic target?' but also, 'How can I optimise the health and vitality of (my soil and) my crop with minimum input?'

Initially, the sector was strongly focused on optimising crop growth, opening trade channels, increasing sales and boosting public image. Not until recently have efforts been made to optimise the basic seed stock. These efforts have primarily been directed at propagation under organic conditions; improving varieties has long been ignored. Now, with the rapid rise of biotechnology, there is a greater urgency to focus specifically on seed stock and breeding. Below, a number of developments in organic agriculture are described against this backdrop.

    The development of farming systems
Most organic farms in the Netherlands find their origin in conventional farms that had given up livestock production and later converted to organic farming. However, organic farming is increasingly aiming at a closed nutrient cycle which can be achieved by combining crop production and livestock. Thus arable farms are now seeking ways to re-introduce mixed systems by letting beef cattle range outdoors in summer and stabling them in winter. Other arable farms are forming collaborations with more or less distant livestock farms: a kind of mixed system at one remove (Baars, 1998).

Such farms are now calling for new plant breeding products. Mixed farms need, for example, animal feeds that fit the types of animal that are most suited to their farming system, together withlong-strawed cereal varieties that yield sufficient straw to mix with slurry.

    The development of soil enhancing cultivation systems
Enhancing soil condition (soil life, humus content and structure) as a basis for sound crop growth is central to every organic system. It means that a sound fertilisation regime is coupled to a sound cropping programme. The choice of crop is determined by market demand and complementarity of crop characteristics. Thus a one- sided burdening of the soil is prevented.

In organic farming we find greater diversity in crop management systems because organic systems are more dependent on changing natural circumstances than are conventional systems. Organic farmers should be able to choose from a wide range of crop characteristics. Plant breeders should play a major role in all this (see section 2.3.1).

    Developments in the production chain
An organic farmer needs shrewd insight and skill to be able to fine-tune the complexity of individual management factors. He must adopt the attitude of the researcher. Conversely, for research to be effective it should be carried out at farm management level. That is why most research carried out by the Louis Bolk Institute is participatory research done on the farm (Baars, 1999). Regional diversity should also be taken into account which makes a close relationship between organic farmer and plant breeder highly desirable.

The diversity in crop management systems is caused not only by organic farming's greater dependency on natural variation but also by diversity in markets. The food processing industry and the supermarkets are increasingly focusing on organic products. The organic sector produces for a variety of market segments: thus large-scale farms focus on exports or the processing industry, medium-sized farms produce for the specialised health food shops and smaller farms produce for local markets or their own customers (via subscriptions) (Van Mansvelt & Mulder, 1993). This contributes to the diversity in crop management systems.

The crop varieties for organic farming should be matched to this diversity in crop management systems and should be sufficiently wide-ranging.

An increasing number of consumers express their concern for the quality of food, nature and the environment in their choice for organic produce. Initially consumers focused on food safety: they wanted organic products produced without the use of fertilisers and pesticides. This group is to a large extent the same that is now against genetically modified products. The organic sector's explicit decision to remain gmo-free takes away much of that worry. The concern for genetically engineered food is acknowledged by the Dutch government in their promise that they will support a gmo-free production chain alongside conventional production. The consumer trusts (that) the (organic) sector will not go back on this. The organic sector cannot therefore allow genetic engineering, not even on scientific grounds. The ever growing number of organic consumers (subscription is becoming very popular) shows that the natural image of organic farming makes the consumer feel that organically produced food is safe.

2.2 The growth of the organic sector

The organic sector in the Netherlands is growing. From 1986 to 1996 the average surface area of an organic farm increased from 10 to 26 ha (Van der Linden, 1996). The area of organically farmed land has increased since 1986 by an annual 1,200 ha, a total increase from 2,727 ha in 1986 to 14,334 ha in 1996 (table 1). This is 0.7 per cent of the total area of farmland in the Netherlands. As of 1995 organic farming began to grow exponentially: estimates from March 1998 give a total of 17,500 ha, i.e. 0.97 per cent of the total farmed area in the Netherlands (Biologica, 1998).

More than half of the organically farmed land is grassland. In organic farming grassland shows the fastest expansion. This is partly because dairy products were among the first organic products to be introduced in supermarkets. This enabled large-scale marketing and made it easier for farmers to take the step towards conversion. Other sectors of organic farming saw an increase in holdings and farmed area.

Platform Biologica, the interest group for organic farming and the marketing of organic products, gives four reasons for the growth in organic farming (Biologica, 2 December 1997):

-    an active attitude of supermarket chains in the marketing and promotion of organic produce;

-    EU hectare premiums for organic farming;

-    a more active role of the government in educating the public about organic farming;

-    falling consumer prices following increased sales, which resulted in economies of scale in processing and distribution.

The growth of organic agriculture in the Netherlands compares poorly with that in some other European countries (table 2) where incentive measures were taken earlier, which allowed their organic sector to develop more quickly. Also, conventional farming in the Netherlands is highly productive and specialised. Many farmers had made major investments and for them conversion was a far greater step than for their European counterparts.

    Critical remarks
Further growth of organic farming must not result in the loss of the sector's strength which lies in the high quality of products and production. Competition and integration of conventional outlets puts stronger pressure on market prices for organic products. The sector must be careful not to relax quality requirements. Varieties must be productive and uniform to meet conventional quality requirements, but modern varieties that meet these two conditions are often tasteless. Organic breeding can make a positive contribution here by developing high-yielding varieties that also meet high quality standards.

2.3 The development of basic seed stock for the organic sector

2.3.1    Characteristics of varieties for organic growing

The organic farmer will base his choice of crops on soil type, soil condition, climate, rotation and market demand. More often than not, his criteria will be similar to those of his conventional counterpart but his priorities are different.

In organic growing, qualities such as rapid early growth, (the crop's contribution to weed reduction on the farm), resistance to pests and diseases, adaptability to lower fertiliser input, role in crop rotation and product quality are important. Obviously yield is important too, but it is not the overriding factor. In his selection of varieties, the grower will use the information provided by seed suppliers, trade journals and the experience of his colleagues. As most varieties have been developed for conventional growers who use chemical fertilisers it is not always easy to say how they will perform under organic conditions. Organic growers have to find out by trying. Comparing notes therefore is essential here.

Nevertheless, the most popular varieties with conventional growers are also used by organic farmers. Older varieties do not find much favour as yields and resistance are poor. However, the fact that organic growers use modern varieties does not necessarily mean that they are the best for organic conditions. Important characteristics in varieties for organic farming are described below.

    Adaptability to soil and level of fertilising
The organic farmer relies heavily on the natural resources available on the farm and wishes to be independent of external artificial means to the largest possible extent. This requires great adaptability of the crops grown. The corrective actions a farmer can apply are also limited. To get the best possible yields on a given site, growers use cultivars that are adapted to that particular environment and to nutrient levels which fluctuate with the seasons. Cultivars, as Scheller (1988) has argued, play an active rather than passive role in all this. In this context, Scheller refers to the plant's active nutrient mobilisation, a concept that so far has received little attention in the science of nutrients and fertilisation. Adaptation does not mean 'maximum utilisation' but rather the 'optimal interaction' with the conditions given.

This optimal interaction also concerns adaptability to the dynamics of conditions of growth which changes with the seasons. For instance, in early spring when mineralisation is just starting, nitrogen levels in the soil are low (Scheller et al., 1990). This requires crops with longer taproots which can bring nutrients up from deeper layers (Lammerts van Bueren, 1994). However many new varieties such as the leek hybrids (Beurkens, 1997), require heavy nitrogen applications to deliver the promised yields, which shows how the needs of organic farmers are not met by conventional breeding.

    A plant' s contribution to overall weed reduction
Chemical herbicides are not used in organic farming. Thus a crop's vigour and ability to compete with weeds, particularly in its early growth stages, are vital, as good establishment is critical to the success of the crop. Crop structure, tillering (speed and size) particularly under less favourable conditions (cold spring, low nitrogen levels in soil) and a plant's firmness are all qualities that help farmers reduce weeds (Lammerts van Bueren 1994; Kuntz et al., 1991a). Increasing mechanisation of harvesting such crops as carrot has led to the breeding of varieties with upright tops. This is in sharp contrast with the desire for more ground cover to discourage weeds.

    'Many modern wheat varieties from conventional breeding start developing late in spring and give poor early growth (and tillering) under organic conditions. This gives unbalanced and open crops. The growth pattern of modern varieties results in reduced ground cover which reduces the plants' ability to compete with weeds. Their greater sensitivity to weed competition requires a more frequent application of nitrogen than with older varieties. Yields of modern wheat varieties turn out to be relatively unstable over the years. Nor is the use of older varieties the better option as older varieties give poor yields and, under current conditions, are extremely susceptible to pests and diseases (mildew, yellow and brown rust)' (Kunz et al.,1991a).

    Resistance to pests and diseases
Organic farmers use prevention rather than control measures to head off pests and diseases. This means that resistance in varieties is an important quality; it should be effective and durable.

The ability to resist pests and diseases is based on more than a plant's absolute resistance. Absolute, monogenetic resistance is likely to break down sooner or later, as, for example, in apple production where a new race of the apple scab pathogen has been found recently in a newly introduced resistant variety. Such breakdowns can be delayed by resistance management. In cereal growing for instance, mixed varieties can be used (Wolfe, 1985, Doorgeest, 1990; Wolfe and Finckh, 1997, Zadoks, 1991), or varieties can be spread or rotated (Bonnier et al.,1991, Finckh and Wolfe, 1998). From an organic point of view, each of the varieties used in this way should have a broadly-based resistance. In combination with management measures, such varieties should be adequately resistant to diseases and pests. In commercial plant breeding, optimising and managing varieties in such a way has largely been ignored because it was either too expensive to develop (polygenetic resistance) or did not go far enough (conventional farmers want high resistance levels).

Crop structure is another quality that helps keep down the risk of disease. Plants of a more open structure and less foliage will dry sooner, which reduces the risk of fungal infections. In lettuce this results in more upright growing varieties such as the batavia types. A more open structure however makes it more difficult to keep weeds under control. In this respect a grower has to weigh his options carefully before making a choice.

Diseases that are common in conventional farming due to high crop densities and frequent nitrogen applications such as mildew and lodging in cereals are rarely a problem in organic farming.

    Quality of the end product
Organic farmers pay much attention to quality characteristics such as taste, keeping quality, form, structure and colour of a product. Quality is controllable when a farmer carefully selects variety characteristics, soil type and management strategy. Now that supermarket chains are increasingly selling organic products, the pressure on prices is high and strict demands are made on quality. New carrot varieties for instance, that meet the demands on size, smoothness and high yields, lack taste. This might be improved by a change in breeding priorities

Firmness and early maturity are important for a good quality product. Sometimes specific characteristics are important, baking quality in bread wheat, for instance, and malting quality in barley. For baby food and juice processors low nitrate levels in the end product is important. Food processors are increasingly looking for organic products and demand improved variety characteristics and optimised management measures.

2.3.2    Organic propagation

Seeds, seedlings and plant material are the basis for cultivation. Good quality is vital here. Producing good propagating material requires great skill. In organic farming an effort is made to work with organically produced stock (EU-Directive 2092/91).

Most propagating material however is conventionally grown. Seeds treated with conventional products may be used only if users are unable to obtain non-treated seeds on the market . However organic growers are not allowed to use detergents or germination promoters. In arable farming where seed production does not differ much from crop production, organic growers use their own non-treated seeds as basic stock for self-fertilising crops such as cereals, peas and beans. There are firms that produce organic propagating material and seed stock of various field crops (e.g. potato) but the organic propagation of hybrids has not yet begun.

Skal makes an annual inventory for the benefit of affiliated farmers of the varieties for which organic propagating material is available. ⁴> > In the vegetable sector, organic propagation is a new development. A new foresight study of the problems and possibilities for organic propagation in organic vegetable growing (Lammerts van Bueren, 1994) has shown that in this respect conventional seed merchants can make an important contribution. In the Dutch organic sector there are only two firms specialising in the production of organic seed stock.

Guidelines for the organic propagation of seeds vary within Europe. In Switzerland, seed stock can only be traded under the name of Demeter (biodynamic mark) after having run a two-year cycle on an organic farm. The Netherlands follows Council Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 which allows the use of the EKO mark for selected seeds that under current conditions have been multiplied for one cycle on an organic farm.

Under the farmer's privilege, farmers are allowed to propagate seed stock for their own use. Biodynamic farmers in particular are interested in producing their own seed on the farm as they feel that propagation and selection on their own farm will increase a variety's adaptability to local production circumstances. Adaptability to local conditions requires some genetic variation in a plant but genetic variation in modern varieties is often small. Such varieties are not flexible in adapting to changes in the production site's environment.

The propagation of seed stock on the farm still needs to be translated into a practical strategy. Most farmers cannot meet the requirements set for regular seed quality. Besides, the progeny of selected plants requires lines of certain quality; F1 hybrids, of course, cannot be propagated directly. The propagation of varieties on farm requires expert guidance to carry out proper selections.

Not many farmers therefore think that propagation of seed stock on the farm is a viable option. However, cereal growers are an exception and some growers have years of experience with propagating their own stock (Andeweg et al., 1983; Beringer et al., 1996; Eysten et al., 1984; Scheepers and Hendriks, 1989; Spiess, 1996).

What is important here is that propagation should be under organic conditions. This is increasingly the case as farmers propagate and trade seed stock from one or sometimes several crops on the basis of a contract and with the help of a seed producer (which in the Netherlands is beginning to take off ) or in co-operation with growers associations (as in Germany).

         2.3.3    Organic plant breeding

The fact that conventionally grown varieties are used in organic farming does not necessarily mean that they are the most suitable. With respect to nitrogen uptake efficiency, contribution to weed reduction on the farm, resistance to pests and diseases and quality they leave much to be desired (see section 2.3.1). An organic sector in development needs plant breeding. The growing impact of gene technology in conventional breeding must also be reckoned with. The organic sector's stated intention of wanting to steer clear of genetic modification implies that it does not wish to be dependent on conventionally produced varieties. The sector sets strict requirements for a variety's characteristic (product quality) and breeding techniques (process quality).

Plant breeding programmes that are focused exclusively on organic farming hardly exist on the scale needed, but the need for such programmes is rapidly increasing. In Germany and Switzerland, such programmes have already been set up by breeders from the biodynamic sector. Now that a start has been made with organic propagation in the Netherlands, attempts are being made to set up organic breeding programmes. At the request of organic traders, the Zaadgoed Foundation was set up in the spring of 1998 to stimulate such programmes. The Foundation is a knowledge and coòrdination centre.

Examples of what is currently being done in the area of organic breeding are described below.

             Cereal breeding
In Germany and Switzerland several small cereal breeding initiatives have been launched under different regional conditions. A group of biodynamic cereal breeders (Heyden, Irion, Kunz, Spiess) annually compares notes on their progress with lines and varieties at various sites (Kunz et al., 1997).

Among them is Peter Kunz, a Swiss breeder who has been breeding cereals for biodynamic farming for over 15 years. In 1996 he came up with his first spelt variety, Alkor, which has now been released on the Swiss market. Applications for three other varieties will be made soon. Spelt, a cereal that is closely related to wheat, is a robust crop and gives high nutritional value at relatively low yields. As the basis for his cross- breeding work, Kunz collected 2500 varieties from various gene banks to get the most suitable varieties for organic conditions. Kunz is also breeding new wheat varieties (Kunz, 1991b, Kunz et al., 1995, 1997). He made an in-depth study of the origins, developments and characteristics of wheat, based on the relevant literature and an extensive screening of 500 old and modern wheat varieties. This forms the basis of his investigation into a 'fitting' shape for wheat.

'What we aim for', he writes, 'is breeding a variety that gives the most characteristic feature of wheat its due in a well-balanced whole. On the basis of our phenomenological study we gave preference to types where the vegetative and generative elements were clearly distinguished both in the plant's development and its morphology. You get plants with long top internodes which can easily be observed in the field. This criterion leads, almost as a side-effect, to a lesser susceptibility to ear fungi, the ear being in a drier micro-climate.' (Kunz, 1983, 1986).

Specific selection criteria are baking quality, contribution to weed restriction and resistance to smut. To develop his selection criteria he also carried out comparative studies on baking quality. On account of the great variation in altitude, soil and climate in Switzerland, Kunz carries out his work on farms in different regions (Standort-orientierte Zùchtung).

To illustrate, let us take Peter Kunz' concept of a breeding system for organic farming.

Kunz' principles for breeding for organic conditions are as follows:

        1.    In the selection of parent stock for cross breeding purposes the specific conditions on the farm must be taken into account. Various biodynamic farms and one conventional farm in Switzerland made trial plots available. The sites were characterised.         

        2.    Selection and the development of hybrids must take place directly in the area where the new hybrid is to grow so that site-specific natural selection can take place. The prevailing specific selection criteria can be taken into account and they can be worked out more specifically.         

        3.    The hybrid population should be narrowed down genetically only to the extent that is necessary for the given site. Heterogeneity should be maintained to some extent, not only to allow continued organic development of the variety (progeny) under the supervision of a breeder but also to allow for crop diversity, which seems to make more sense than conserving a range of gene banks.

Figure 1 outlines Kunz' approach. Crossings were made on a central trial plot. The F1, which is available for further breeding, is also grown there. From F2 and F3 (depending on the amount of available seed stock and breeding method) the various populations go to the different organic trial sites on farms either as pedigrees or as mixtures, where assessments and selections will be made every 3 or 4 weeks, or as required.

Download Figure 1. A breeding scheme for regionally adapted wheat (30k)

After the harvest the final selection (grain quality etc.) and processing is done at one central site. The progeny is selected and processed at the same site over a period of years. A conventional breeding scheme is given in fig. 2. The great difference with the scheme in figure 1 is that the lines are not tested on different sites until F6 is reached. The priority in conventional breeding is not adaptability to location but pheno-typical stability.

Download Figure 2. A conventional breeding scheme for wheat (23k)

             Vegetable breeding
In Germany, Thomas Heinze co-ordinates an association for the propagation and breeding of vegetable seeds. It organises two meetings a year for its 70 biodynamic members to compare notes and to match training sessions and practical arrangements. Each breeder is in charge of one or more varieties. Forty-eight vegetable species and 158 varieties are now available for public sale. Their range comprises varieties bred under the license of other (conventional) breeders, their own selections, and a number of very useful, free varieties which can be grown again on account of the intensive conservation of selected resources. The seed stock is collected at Bingenheim, where it is tested, packaged and marketed. Important breeders here are Thomas Heinze, Dieter Bauer, Amadeus Zschunke and Ulrike Behrendt (Behrendt, 1983). They aim at varieties that do well in organic conditions, varieties with a well-developed root system, good adaptability and resistance to fungal diseases and insect pests.

In the Netherlands, Jan Velema and Taco van der Made (Vitalis Biologische Zaden BV) have bred vegetable varieties for commercial organic growers since 1994. They have recently started crossing and selecting on a modest scale. Velema notes that breeding aims for lettuce in organic conditions are very similar to those of conventional programmes, but priorities differ. By selecting and propagating under organic conditions, other characteristics are accentuated in existing varieties than would be for conventional farming. The breeding process then continues using these plants.

Velema is working on a cauliflower hybrid programme based on self-incompatibility. The difference in vigour between stable varieties and hybrids proves greater under organic than under conventional conditions. This is because hybrids develop better root systems under organic conditions.

Jan Velema also works with pumpkins. Conventional pumpkin varieties generally come from the US and Japan since there is little pumpkin breeding in Europe. Vitalis has taken it up and breeds varieties that meet European standards. Pumpkins are becoming very popular with organic growers. Vitalis also breeds a number of other crops on a small scale.

Chris and Harry Douwes run De Bolster, where they propagate organic seed for small growers and gardeners. They have a wide selection of vegetable and flower seed (250 varieties in all). The best plants are selected to produce seed for the next year.

The firm aims to grow strong varieties based on years of growing and selection. Seed stock for new species and varieties is collected from other breeders, botanical gardens, gene banks and private growers.

             Environmental aspects
Selection for organic breeding is deliberately done in regional, organic conditions to allow natural circumstances to play a part.

Some biodynamic growers believe there is no need for cross breeding; that new varieties can be bred from the variation within existing varieties. One such method which is still being developed is the ear bed method where selection is based on a grain's place in the ear. Variation can also be developed from growing and selecting successive generations of one variety in vastly different environments. This method is still being developed and its usefulness has not yet been tested. Schmidt, who developed these methods (Wistinghausen, 1976) has inspired breeders such as H. van Haperen (1998), P. Raatsie, H. Schnek (St. Hermes, 1997), E. Irion and others.

The interaction of different environments is being investigated and so is the interaction of sowing dates. In some cross pollinating winter cereals such as rye it is found that early sowing dates (end of August, early September) lead to improved baking quality; later sowing dates (November, December) give better quality seed (Muggli et al., 1990; Raatsie, 1989).

Addresses of organic breeders are given in Appendix 1.

         2.4    Summary and conclusion

The organic sector is growing steadily. Initially it was strongly focused on optimising crop growth, opening trade channels and boosting sales and public image. Not until recently have efforts been made to optimise the basic seed stock. Increasingly existing varieties are being propagated in organic conditions. The breeding of new varieties for organic agriculture however has not yet got off the ground. Yet the need for organic breeding is growing rapidly particularly with the rapid rise of biotechnology and the organic sector's decision to remain gmo-free.

Plant breeding can play an important role in optimising organic management by focusing not only on high yield but on such qualities as rapid early growth, (the crop's contribution to weed reduction on the farm), resistance to pests and diseases, adaptability to lower fertiliser input, role in crop rotation and product quality.

Early initiatives in this field show that organic breeders aim not only at specific product qualities but also seek to develop new breeding techniques. The interaction between plant, environment, grower and plant breeder is considered of vital importance.

Next section of "Sustainable Organic Plant Breeding."

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